Physical Hazards
Slips, trips, and falls
Slips, trips, and falls account for approximately 33% of all recorded injuries in the workplace, as stated by the HSE for the year 2020/21. This category covers a whole array of different hazards, from slippery floors to out of place items such as boxes or tools, icy conditions, or obstructions to walkways such as cables. Due to the sheer number of hazards that fall within this category, it's to no surprise that there are an equal number of potential injuries, or risks that could be sustained as a result. These hazards are a large contributor to sprains and strains, fractures, cuts or grazes, and even extreme injuries such as brain injuries or fatalities.
Many of these hazards can even present themselves in a seemingly trivial manner, appearing almost inconsequential in their nature. A 2-inch difference in height between adjoining floors, half a spilled coffee on the floor, or maybe just a sheet of paper lying on the ground. These examples in comparison to more extreme hazards can seem irrelevant, possibly not worth consideration. However, paper or spilled liquids on the floor can lead to a slick surface, no matter how small, creating a risk of slipping. A change in height between floors, especially a small, less visible change, is enough to risk an individual twisting an ankle or even tripping over. It's important that we all do our bit to ensure the safety of those around us, and so we should follow the procedures put into place to maintain a safe working environment. Here are some examples of the most common activities and procedures that should be carried out or put into place to prevent injury from the related hazards:
● Spills should be immediately mopped up
● Debris or clutter should be cleared from walkways
● Changes in floor height should be clearly marked with signage
● Materials and boxed goods, tools and other related equipment should be stored in an appropriately sectioned off area
● Cables that run through walkways should be appropriately covered on taped to the floor
● Wet or waxed floor should be appropriately signed as such
● Access equipment should be used in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and the health and safety guidelines
It is our collective responsibility to maintain a clean and tidy working area, and potential hazards should be dealt with immediately.
Working at Height
Falling from height is the greatest risk associated with working at height, and accounts for approximately 8% of non-fatal injuries in the workplace, as well as the largest proportion of fatal injuries in the workplace, according to the HSE statistics from 2020/21. Working at height scenarios include working from ladders, working on scaffolds, as well as working on lifting equipment such as cherry pickers.
Access equipment such as ladders and cherry pickers have an extensive list of individual safety guidelines and regulations provided by the manufacturer, all of which comply with health and safety regulations. All other working at height activities are covered by “The Work at Height Regulations 2005”.
When working at height, proper access should be established, handrails should be present when required, all suspension gear such as harnesses and ropes should be appropriately checked before usage, and safety nets or pillows should be present when required. The full list of precautions and operating procedures will be outlined in the risk assessment undertaken before the task.
Falling objects
There are many construction related tasks that are carried out at height, and as such, the materials and tools required to achieve them are transported to and often temporarily stored at height. By-products and waste materials from these tasks can also be found at height, before their proper disposal. As such, these objects can be hazard with the potential to be dropped from height. It is therefore critical to ensure that these items are either not able to fall, or that the areas in which they could fall are inaccessible to operatives or pedestrians below.
Scaffolds erected near pedestrian thoroughfares should be covered in safety netting to prevent items falling outside of the footprint of scaffold. Overhead scaffold projections should extend from the lowest lift of the scaffold to directly protect the pavement or road below from falling objects. Where a risk of items falling is especially present, or where an intentional zone is laid out for items to be thrown, hoarding or fencing should be erected to prevent access to the area.
In terms of working on site, hardhats should be worn during any activities in which there is a risk of being struck by falling objects. Most large sites mandate the use of hard hats at all times. Appropriate waste disposal chutes should be put into place for workers working at height to safely and effectively dispose of waste. When lifting equipment such as cranes or forklifts are in use, workers and pedestrians should be well clear of the area, and a non-accessible “danger zone” should be established, to ensure that objects falling in the event of an accident do not land on anyone.
Improper lifting procedures
Lifting and handling makes up a large percentage of the tasks that we carry out within construction. All aspects of construction, whether carpentry or other trades require the use of heavy materials and equipment, all of which need to be transported to the area of installation/operation. Most of the time these materials are handled manually. On large sites it’s standard for heavy machinery to be used to transport goods between plots, though the materials still need to be manually handled once inside the building. There is no hard and fast rule on what should and shouldn't be lifted in terms of weight, however the HSE have a full run down on lifting and handling, stating recommended weights that shouldn't be lifted.
Proper lifting technique involves bending with the knees and maintaining a straight back whilst thrusting upwards with the glutes and upper thighs. There are many injuries that can be sustained from improper lifting techniques or attempting to lift items that are too heavy. Some of these injuries include hernias, slipped discs, back problems, and pinched nerves. Large items also tend to obscure vision whilst being carried, leading to other risks such as tripping over unseen items.
Appropriate manual handling training must be provided to operatives that are expected to carry out handling tasks. Appropriate manual handling procedures and protocols to be undertaken will be written up in the risk assessment and method statement.
Collapsing trenches
During the process of erecting a building or an extension, it's typical for concrete strip foundations to be laid in preparation for the rest of the house to be built. These types of foundations are cost effective but require a suitable solid layer of ground in the bottom of the trench in which they are poured. Whilst a digger can do most of the heavy lifting, it's often necessary for an operative to get down into the trench to clean out corners, dig around utilities, or lay rebar or stakes in the ground for the concrete. For a minimum depth trench, approximately 1m metre down from the common ground level, the risk of trench collapse is low, though in looser ground buildups the trenches should still be shored up. As trenches become deeper in the search for stable ground to pour the footing on, the risk of potential collapse increases.
Deep trenches, or trenches that are dug into less stable ground are much more likely to collapse inwards. In the event of a collapse, tons of soil can become loose and fall inwards into the excavated trench. It’s vitally important that as soon as the risk of collapse is identified by an experienced plant operator or supervisor, that the trench is fully shored up with sheet materials and braced with cross members before anyone makes their way into the trench. If possible, where a risk of collapse is a potential, operatives should avoid entering the trench at any point to eliminate the risk of injury by collapse.
It’s also worth highlighting that heavy plant moving in close proximity to the edge of a trench has the potential to exacerbate any potential collapse, and under no circumstances should an operative work or be stood near or under a piece of machinery in this situation.
A deep trench collapse can lead to operatives being completely buried/crushed under the weight of the soil. This is a very serious incident – possibly leading to fatality- though the potential hazard is usually obvious in these scenarios. Operatives are conscious of the depth and potential for collapse, and these larger excavations typically occur on large sites within the scope of meticulous health and safety procedures. The hidden danger lies in the complacency around shallow trenches. Most residential trenches are a maximum of chest height for operatives stood within the trench, and quite often less deep than that. It’s easy to underestimate the risks associated with working around trenches when they only come up to the waist. Even with the lack of depth in this scenario, the weight of the soil in falling inwards in the event of a collapse is enough to break legs and hips – an unpleasant outcome.
Protruding construction equipment/materials
The construction process involves a lot of traversing within and around the structure that is being erected. Within this shell and its surrounding area there naturally can be found a large collection of materials and equipment that is utilised during the process of construction. In addition to the storage of these materials, spaces on site may also be allocated for construction material waste or demolition related waste. These areas pose a risk to operatives in the area through the hazard of protruding objects such as being snagged on timbers or pipes. Sometimes these materials can be sharp and pose a risk of injury to operatives in the area. Oftentimes a building will spend a period encased within a scaffold which also carry a risk of injury due to protruding poles or low hanging fittings. Care should be taken in these scenarios to wear appropriate PPE, but the erectors of the scaffold should also take care to assemble and appropriately sign their scaffold.
Similarly, heavy plant and large equipment can also often be found on larger sites, and some of these pieces include low hanging components that pose a risk of injury. All of these hazards should be identified within the risk assessment, and appropriate precautions should be taken to ensure the associated risks are minimised.
Asbestos
Asbestos is a particularly important hazard to understand, and a very important material to be able to identify. With a small amount of training and understanding, its potential presence can be effectively identified, and safe working practices can be undertaken.
Asbestos is the name given to a naturally occurring group of minerals that was mined extensively throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, used primarily for its excellent electrical insulative properties, and extreme resistance to fire and heat. It was a commonly available material, due to its widespread abundance and cheap cost of production. There are 6 different types of asbestos, these being:
· Chrysotile (White Asbestos)
· Amosite (Brown Asbestos)
· Crocidolite (Blue Asbestos)
· Anthophyllite
· Tremolite
· Actinolite
White, brown, and blue asbestos are by far the most widespread types of asbestos used within construction, with the other three types being less common. The negative effects associated with asbestos, particularly blue and brown were identified in the late 60’s and 70’s, with a ban on the use of brown and blue asbestos coming into effect in the UK in 1985. This ban was extended in 1999 to include all forms of asbestos. White asbestos is the most widely used type of asbestos in construction and is generally considered to be the least harmful to health, with blue asbestos being considered particularly harmful. With that said, all forms of asbestos are toxic and carcinogenic.
Asbestos is a fibrous silicate mineral, with these fibres themselves creating the hazard to health. When asbestos is mined, abraded, cut, broken, drilled into, these microscopic fibres become airborne, and can be breathed in by anyone in proximity. The fibres themselves are barbed and become lodged inside the lining of the lungs when inhaled. Due to its carcinogenic nature, there is no safe level of exposure to asbestos, though prolonged and repeated exposure to the particulates will increase the likelihood of developing an associated illness. These illnesses include asbestosis – a non-cancerous lung disease that leads to scarring of the lungs, mesothelioma – a rare form of cancer, and asbestos related lung cancer.
Whilst the topic itself is concerning when presented with all of the facts, it’s important to consider the legitimate associated risks. There is no current cure for asbestos related illnesses, but we need to understand the factors that play into the development of these conditions. The type of exposure, length of exposure, individual susceptibility, and associated hazards can all affect the likelihood of developing an asbestos related illness. The specific materials used, and tasks carried out in the past will affect the amount of exposure. Operatives that worked with asbestos in the past are likely to have had frequent encounters with the material. Some operatives that may have regularly worked with asbestos may never suffer from adverse health conditions, whilst others than had limited exposure may become ill. Other factors like smoking can exponentially increase the risk of developing asbestos related illnesses. Illnesses associated with asbestos exposure can take from 20 - 60 years after exposure to present symptoms.
Despite having been completely banned for use in UK construction since 1999, those exposed in the past still run the risk of developing these illnesses later in life, with an estimate of over 5000 deaths per year still occurring in the UK due to asbestos related illnesses, as stated by the HSE annual asbestos report.
The possibility of exposure has greatly reduced since the ban on asbestos, due to the reduced amount of work carried out with asbestos. Still, it is thought that most modern buildings constructed before 1980 will have or did contain asbestos related products to some extent, as stated by Laurie Kazan-Allen in their 2002 study - “Asbestos: Properties, Uses and Problems”.
Operatives that carry out demolition, renovations, or maintenance work within properties that contain existing asbestos may be at risk of exposure through disturbing these materials. It is critical that asbestos surveys are carried out by licensed companies before works are undertaken in any properties that may contain asbestos. The surveyors will make educated assumptions about which components may contain asbestos, taking samples to be tested by a lab to confirm. These reports state the location and type of any asbestos within the building and convey risk levels and recommended actions based on the condition of the asbestos. Asbestos containing materials (ACM) that are in good condition and do not need to be disturbed pose little to no risk, whilst those that are deteriorating are often recommended to be removed.
Many companies exist within the UK that are fully trained in compliance with asbestos related health and safety, with their primary role being the effective and safe disposal of and remaining asbestos. In our line of work, the procedure for dealing with asbestos once it has been identified would be contacting a disposal company for the safe removal of the material.
The most common applications of asbestos products in the past were corrugated roofing material, soffit and verge board, fireplace linings, chimney flue surrounds, as well as insulation.
Despite the hazards associated with asbestos, when left alone and in good conditions it is relatively harmless. Asbestos as a mineral was incorporated into many different products and asbestos containing materials (ACM) due to its properties. Its physical properties made it an effective insulator, though more prominently the fibres themselves provided excellent stability and strength to manufactured asbestos products. Primarily cement based products such as corrugated sheets, chimney liners, fireplace surrounds, soffit boards, tiles under cloaks, floor tiles, and standard sheets all benefited from the additional tensile strength of asbestos fibres within their mix. The asbestos percentage within these materials can range from as low as 1 percent up to as much as 85 percent in the case of asbestos pipe lagging. Other materials such as Artex ceilings and bitumen adhesive may contain asbestos fibres – again for the additional tensile strength provided.
Asbestos can also be found in the form of quilt or loose fill insulation in lofts. Vermiculite is another naturally occurring mineral that can be found in lofts, used as a loose fill insulation. Whilst vermiculite itself is not harmful, it is found geologically within the same areas as asbestos, and so cross contamination can occur.
The primary take away here is to always er on the side of caution, employ the services of licensed asbestos survey and removal companies, and to not disturb identified asbestos.
Lath and plaster
Lath and plaster, similarly to asbestos, also falls under the general classification of hazardous materials. Lath and plaster is the traditional method of finishing internal stud walls and ceilings, and was the primary method in the UK until the introduction of plasterboard related products in the 1930’s. This method involved nailing many rows of thin strips of wood called laths across the ceiling joists or wall studs, with small gaps in between each row. The plaster, made from a lime base, was then applied to the face of the laths. As the plaster was forced between the gaps in the laths, “keys” were formed as it dried, physically holding the plaster onto the laths. The process of installing lath and plaster is far less common in modern construction, typically reserved for heritage and restoration scenarios. The process of installing laths is time consuming and inefficient in comparison to modern plastering solutions.
It goes without saying that lime and plaster dust pose a respiratory hazard and are also skin irritants. Aside from the risks associated with the use of lime as a chemical component, the other hazardous part of this method of construction presents itself in the form of a biological illness. To provide strength and stability to the finished plaster surface, horsehair was used as a binder, being mixed into the wet plaster in the same fashion that asbestos fibres provide stability in asbestos containing materials. This hair was/is a very common component in old plaster finishes, providing stability to the surface in a similar fashion that fibres exist in modern plasterboards. However, there is the potential for Bacillus Anthracis bacteria being present on the horsehair and within the plaster mix. The bacteria can survive lying dormant for hundreds of years and is most often found in agricultural soil where the conditions for breeding are optimum. Wild and domesticated animals are capable of contracting anthrax through exposure to the bacteria in these conditions. Infected animals are likely to have bacterial spores attached to their hair. Following this logic, it's possible for infected horsehair to have been supplied for use in traditional plaster. If so, there is a potential for it being kicked up into the air during demolition.
Infection by the Bacillus Anthracis bacteria leads to the more commonly known “anthrax” illness, an infectious and lethal disease that causes toxins to be released throughout the body, leading to organ failure. During demolition processes, it's possible for dormant spores to be kicked up into the air if they are present in the plaster.
Exposure to anthrax through lathe and plaster dust isn’t very likely, but precautions should be taken by wearing respiratory protection, as well as washing clothes that have been exposed to the dust.
Electrocution
Whilst carrying out construction related tasks, we often come into contact with an array of different sources of power. Live cables and power tools are amongst the most common instances in which we work around electricity. Touching live sources of electricity comes with the hazard of being electrocuted, which in turn poses a risk of serious injury and death. The HSE website states that contact with an electrical current of as low as 50 volts is enough to disrupt a heartbeat, restrict breathing functions, and cause muscle spasms. Higher voltages than this coming from mains cables can kill instantly if tampered with. As such, it’s important to maintain safe working procedures when the risk of electrocution is present.
When digging footings, care should be taken to ensure mains cables are avoided. When drilling into walls care should be taken to ensure cables are avoided.
When using power tools, cables should be checked for damage before usage in accordance with the PUWER regulations. Exposed electrical cables pose a risk of electrocution.
When carrying out demolition work, care should be taken not to hit or damage cables. Extra care should be taken when working around power in wet conditions. Water is conductive, and as such, wet floors that meet electricity will become electrified.
Transformers are regularly used on site to convert 240v mains into usable 110v. A lower voltage in these instances aims to reduce the severity of a shock if an incident does occur.
Fire and explosion
In a similar vein to working around electricity, other utilities like gas are an important consideration health and safety wise. Ruptured gas pipes cause gas leaks, which in turn can lead to gas explosions. Another consideration are fires on site. Many elements of construction utilise timber, which is a flammable material. Fine timber dust, in addition to dry timber materials pose a serious fire hazard. It's important to always keep fire exits clear in the event of a fire, but preventatively, it's just as important to minimise flammable material hazards by regularly clearing up waste and dust. In addition, fire starting potentials such as exposed wires or damaged electrical components should be eliminated by following relevant fire safety protocols, such as regular PAT testing and servicing of tools. Extension leads should be fully unwound before use to prevent overheating, and tools that become hot during use should be left to cool before continuation.
It’s important during the construction process to formulate and agree upon fire safety procedures and evacuation routes with all operatives before work is undertaken. Fire assembly points should be highlighted to all operatives with signage. Fire safety equipment such as fire alarms and fire extinguishers/blankets should also be present regularly throughout the building, with all operatives and visitors to the site being made aware of their locations.
Traps in flooring or scaffolding
A “trap” (colloquial term) refers to the unsupported end of a board, most often occurring in scaffolding and flooring scenarios. Traps are not immediately visible and can give a nasty surprise those who stand on them by suddenly dropping, posing an extreme risk of injury. Traps in scaffold occur when the end of a board or run of boards protrude past the last cross member. A trap in flooring or temporary floor covering occurs in the same manor, where the sheet material overhangs a joist. Traps like these in scaffolding and flooring systems are a major hazard for anyone that is passing through the area. For example, if I were to walk away from an area having left a board overhanging a joist ready to be cut, someone else passing through the area that may not be aware that this is the case may have an accident.
To rectify this issue, unsupported boards should never be left unattended, and provisions for fully supporting them must be installed before laying the board down. It is the responsibility of the scaffolders to ensure that all scaffold boards are suitably supported. When setting up trestles or other work platforms, its important to ensure that the ends of boards are supported, as well as the boards being suitably supported throughout their span.
Power tools
In the modern age of construction, most tasks can be sped up to some degree with the use of power tools, with most tasks relying very heavily on the use of power tools. As such, a large portion of an operative's active working time is spent using this type of equipment, or around other operatives that are carrying out similar tasks. With each different power tool carrying its own hazards, there are many potential risks that could be incurred whilst working on site. Cuts, burns, abrasions, breaks, and pinches are just a few of the injuries that could occur from the improper use of these tools, and as such all of safety precautions stated in the relevant legislation should be followed. We will look at the risks and hazards associated specifically with each individual tool later in this book. All manufacturers are required to supply health and safety information relating to the tools that they produce. This includes safe usage directions. In addition to this, the safe usage of power tools during construction operations is highlighted in the method statement, with the risks having been identified in the risk assessment.
-Aside from the risk of physical injury that is carried along with the use of these tools, many of them create byproducts as a result of their use, creating other hazards such as the dust and loud noise. As such, there is a secondary level of risk associated with the use of these tools.
Hazardous materials
Within the construction industry we utilise many materials and different types of equipment to achieve our desired results. Whilst some of the materials that we use are perfectly safe for use over prolonged periods, other materials carry the risk of harm either through direct contact or inhalation. Certain construction materials are produced using solvents and carcinogens, as well as producing harmful particulate and vapour by-products. Solvents such as paint thinner or brick acid are common substances that can be found within a construction environment, both of which carry associated risks through inhalation and direct contact. Carcinogens and particulates in the form of by-products of certain tasks such as dust also pose a major hazard to health. There are many forms of hazardous materials, though most of the safety regulations surrounding them are highlighted within the (CoSHH) Regulations as well as by the manufacturers of the hazardous materials.
We will look shortly at all the diseases, injuries, and illnesses that can occur from contact with hazardous materials, and how they can be prevented.
Site machinery and heavy plant
During the construction process, many types of heavy machinery and plant are used to increase efficiency and minimise the requirement for physical labour. Large machines such as site mixers and excavators increase production and eliminate the physical labour requirements associated with this type of work. Whilst these machines are a staple in modern construction, many associated risks are carried with their usage. Mixers bring the risk of clothing or body parts being pulled into the mechanism and as such should be used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Large machines such as excavators bring a dangerous crush risk, with many incidents of injury or death occurring each year. With these machines being so large, plant operators often have limited visibility directly behind their machines, and as such must always reverse with the use of a banksman - an operative whose job is to direct and look out for the machine’s driver from the ground.
Large machines with moving arms pose the risk of swinging into other operatives, as well as overhead power cables or building components. Additionally, the weight of machines and the vibration that they omit during operation can cause movement in the earth below them, especially near the edges of trenches. As such, ground workers should not enter trenches of any depth within proximity of a large machine, due to the risk of land movements or crushing from the machines.
Operating procedures are put into place on sites after the undertaking of risk assessments to ensure that safe work is carried out around heavy site machinery. Operatives should be fully trained/qualified before using specific machinery, and non-users must be made aware of the associated hazards. Designated walkways should be sectioned off to prevent operatives from walking in the line of moving vehicles. Additional protocols may be put into place in relation to the use of heavy plant to reduce the risk of incidents occurring.
Sharp objects and material waste
Within all the stages of construction, especially demolition, sharp objects and material waste can frequently be found on site. Whilst the correct and timely disposal in appropriately allocated spaces should always be the main priority for material waste, the fact remains nonetheless that these materials are around us until they are correctly disposed of away from the site. It’s quite common for operatives to work near skips or allocated waste bays on site, and so we need to ensure our safety around this waste. Waste that occurs during a task also poses a risk of injury until it is properly disposed of. When performing demolition tasks, broken glass, sharp tiles, gripper rods, nails protruding from timber, and dust are just a few of the hazards that pose a risk to our health.
With all of these potential snagging, piercing, slicing, and cutting hazards around us, it’s crucially important to ensure that we clear away dangerous waste in an appropriate and timely manner as and when required. Walkways and fire escape routes should always be kept clear regardless of the task at hand, and correct PPE should be always worn when carrying out demolition tasks, as well as disposing of waste accordingly.